In this blog post, I will examine Rousseau’s literature and philosophy, his attitude toward nature, and his life and literary work—particularly his quest to discover his true self in solitude during his later years—with a focus on ‘The Dream of the Solitary Walker’.

18th-Century French Literature and the Emergence of Rousseau

While reading ‘The Dream of the Solitary Walker’, what first caught my attention was the historical context of 18th-century French literature in which this work emerged. The French literature of that era, which gave rise to Rousseau, could hardly be described as Christian literature, nor could it be said to possess firmly established characteristics of its own. The newly emerging bourgeois class had come to realize that they could no longer find guidance for their lives in Catholicism—which rejected earthly existence and focused solely on the afterlife—and had reached a point where they had to pursue a new ethical framework. Amid this spirit of criticism, thinkers such as Diderot and Rousseau—who epitomized the era of the collapse of the absolute monarchy—as well as Montesquieu and Voltaire, could not help but turn their attention to England, which was then a leading nation.
At that time in England, writers such as Daniel Defoe, Richardson, and Swift were creating “civilian literature.” They broke with the tradition of European literature, which had centered on stories of kings, queens, and nobility; unrealistic folktales; and Spanish-style adventure stories, all of which sought an escape from reality. Although their prose and structure were somewhat rough, they vividly portrayed the dynamic, realistic lives of the middle class in their works. In particular, because the writers who led 18th-century British literature were themselves from emerging working-class or middle-class backgrounds, they were able to delve into every nook and cranny of middle-class life, depicting even the finest details and authentically conveying the emotions of that social class in their works.
In contrast, in early 18th-century French literature, the novel had not yet been recognized as a legitimate literary genre and was treated merely as popular entertainment. It was perhaps only natural that French Classical literature, which was in decline, began to lean toward British literature, which dealt deeply with middle-class life.
Against this backdrop, when Rousseau’s ‘New Heloise’ was published in 1761, it caused a huge sensation not only in Paris but throughout France. Philosophers of the time, such as Voltaire and Diderot, harshly criticized the novel as vulgar, but the general public embraced it with great enthusiasm. As a result, it went through no fewer than 72 editions over the 40 years leading up to 1800, achieving a level of success that ranked it among the most notable publications of 18th-century France.

Love and Earthly Happiness as Depicted in ‘La Nouvelle Héloïse’

The plot of ‘La Nouvelle Héloïse’ begins with the love story between Julie, the daughter of a nobleman, and Saint-Preux, the son of a commoner. Though the two love each other, they face staunch opposition from their parents. Ultimately, Julie marries Volmar, the man her father had chosen for her, and strives to become a model wife and mother. However, Volmar invites Saint-Preux—his wife’s former lover—to serve as a tutor for their children. The two lovers are reunited, but each struggles to suppress their past affection through the power of reason. However, even on her deathbed, Julie confesses that she still loves Saint-Preux, and the story concludes with her hope that their love will be reunited in heaven.
Even before writing this novel, Rousseau had informed several people with whom he had socialized in the salons about the work in advance, and he even read portions of it to friends such as Diderot. It is said that after completing the work, he also sent it to the Duchess of Luxembourg. As a result, the novel generated a certain amount of anticipation among readers even before its publication, and bookstores in Germany and Geneva, among other places, went so far as to urge its publication. This situation also highlighted the “novel famine” that had long persisted in France at the time, and the fact that it was a romance novel written by a philosopher was likely enough to pique people’s curiosity.
The philosophy Julia expresses in ‘New Heloise’ resonated strongly with the public of the time, who were dissatisfied with Catholicism’s rejection of the present world and sought happiness on earth. Rousseau rejected novels centered on Eros. However, this was a rejection of sensuality disguised as “respect for nature,” not a rejection of the sensual happiness that nature itself bestows upon humans. I believe the reason this novel was able to capture the public’s interest was that, while skillfully incorporating existing narrative techniques, it was on par with British novels in terms of morality and, at the same time, possessed a certain degree of sensuality.

Rousseau’s New Approach to Characterization and Thought in Literature

Another aspect that stands out while reading ‘New Heloise’ is Rousseau’s literary style. At the time, describing a character’s physical appearance was generally considered the domain of painters, but Rousseau actively incorporated character description into literature. This endeavor paved the way for the naturalistic characterization that would later be adopted by writers such as Flaubert and Maupassant. I believe that expanding the scope of literature to encompass areas previously reserved for painting is one of the significant achievements of Rousseau’s literary work.
Furthermore, Rousseau’s novel is significant as a “philosophical novel.” Just as Voltaire did in ‘Candide’, the method of conveying one’s ideas and philosophy by unfolding a lengthy theory through the novel form—rather than expressing it in just a few lines—was urgently needed in the context of that time. The opportunity to engage with the views of an original thinker through a relatively accessible literary genre must have held great appeal for readers.
I believe Rousseau was a writer who was relatively successful in widely disseminating his ideas to the public. He accurately grasped what his era demanded and what literary techniques were required, and he effectively responded to social concerns. From his first essay, ‘Discourse on the Arts and Sciences’, through ‘Discourse on the Origin of Inequality’, ‘Discourse on the Theater’, ‘Discourse on Music’, ‘The Social Contract’, ‘Emile’, and ‘Discourse on Money’, he faced severe criticism and persecution from the French monarchy and the nobility. Nevertheless, it is clear that he systematized the ideas demanded by the public and made significant contributions to the history of French literature.
It was particularly striking that the pillars of his humanist philosophy were formed in confessional literary works such as ‘Confessions’ and ‘Rousseau Judges Jean-Jacques’. For Rousseau, nature was not merely a scenic backdrop. Grounded in his unwavering affection for nature, he expressed his “natural sentiments.” While his love for nature stemmed from an intense aversion to the artificial world of high society and a yearning for a simple life in nature, I believe it was ultimately always driven by his dream of a better life.
Many people were captivated by Rousseau’s ‘Confessions’ because of its charm, which transcended a mere confession. However, among the countless confessional novels and autobiographical novels written since then, few have been imbued with the author’s vitality as fully as Rousseau’s work.
Thibodet once said of the autobiography that it is the art of a human being, not an artist, and the novel of a human being, not a novelist. He also noted that the artist and the novelist are clearly situated on the other side of everyday consciousness, and that writing an autobiography is the act of perceiving oneself amidst profound complexity. Recalling these words, Rousseau’s writing feels as though he is pointing to a deep underground passage, suggesting that something precious can be discovered within it.

The Peace of Mind Discovered in Solitary Walks

‘The Dream of the Solitary Walker’, a collection of meditations written in Rousseau’s later years, felt like a final reckoning—a testament that succinctly summarized his life and literature. This work captures his constant questioning of what it means to be human as he walks, rejecting all connections with anyone in the world and taking “nature, which never betrays,” as his sole companion.
He states that, after piling suffering upon suffering, he ultimately decided to cease fighting against the inevitable and willingly submit to his own fate. He further recounts that, within this resignation, he discovered a way to be compensated for all his misfortunes. At this point, I sensed that Rousseau had not so much completely ended his struggle with the world as he had reached a stage where he turned his gaze inward rather than continuing to try to change the external world.
From Chapter 1 through Chapter 10, he relives the persecutions and conspiracies of the past, openly revealing his intense emotions. However, following the flow of the entire work, it becomes clear that at its core lies not so much anger as a quest to regain inner peace. He finds great solace in nature and describes his inner life in a calm yet poetic prose.
This solitary wanderings also reveal the author’s desire to leave his true self behind for the world. Consequently, there are instances where descriptions of nature are repeated or where the narrative is somewhat forced in order to emphasize his thoughts. However, I believe that even such repetition and emphasis are connected to Rousseau’s strong desire to leave a lasting legacy of himself.

The Final Journey: Abandoning the Outside World to Find the True Self

“The Dream of a Solitary Walker” can be considered Rousseau’s final work, one that originated from resistance to existing society and ultimately ended with that very resistance. In this work, he concludes that salvation from the belief of being victimized can only be found by abandoning all hope for the outside world and, instead, pursuing one’s true self with absolute dedication.
Viewed through the lens of today’s sensibilities and literary consciousness, one might regard Rousseau’s ideas as nothing more than an attitude of escapism, seeking to flee from all relationships and connections. This is because his decision to sever ties with society, retreat into nature, and focus solely on his inner self may appear, from a modern perspective, as an evasion of reality.
However, when considered in the context of the era in which Rousseau lived, the significance of his work changes. Eighteenth-century French literature played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for the emergence of realism and also contributed to establishing the framework for breaking free from a society dominated by royal authority and the aristocracy. I believe that Rousseau’s contribution to this process cannot be overstated.
Ultimately, ‘The Dream of the Solitary Walker’ cannot be read merely as the record of a single individual who severed ties with the world and fled into nature. This is because it captures Rousseau’s final inner journey—one in which, while reflecting on his anger toward past persecutions and conspiracies, he did not remain trapped in that anger but sought inner peace within nature. When he could no longer find hope in the external world, he sought new possibilities by looking inward at his true self. And in that process, nature became not merely a backdrop but a space that allowed humans to reflect on themselves.
Rousseau’s literature and philosophy responded to the demands of his era, conveying his ideas to the public and prompting constant questioning of the relationships between humans and nature, as well as between society and the individual. ‘The Dream of the Solitary Walker’ stands as a work that, at the final juncture of such a life and literary career, portrays a man who ceases his struggle with the outside world, accepts his fate, and finds inner peace.