In this blog post, we’ll take a vivid look at how Balzac’s masterpiece ‘Father Goriot’ serves as the gateway to his vast series, ‘The Human Comedy’—focusing on the historical background, key characters, and central themes to explain why.

Why Should You Read “Father Goriot” First?

For readers new to Balzac, opinions may vary on which work to start with, but “Father Goriot” is highly recommended for several reasons. This novel brings together the central themes Balzac explored, the ideas that form the backbone of his literary universe, and the key characters that populate his magnum opus, “The Human Comedy.”
Even if you start with other works, you will eventually enter Balzac’s vast and rich world, but ‘Father Goriot’ helps you grasp that world more quickly and easily. This is because within it, you will encounter the fundamental characters and themes that Balzac brings back in his subsequent works.

Balzac’s Background and the Novel’s Historical Setting

Honoré de Balzac was born in 1799 in Tours, a city in the Touraine region of central France, and died in Paris in 1850 at the age of 51. The trajectory of his life and literary career is summarized in the chronology below.
The story of ‘Father Goriot’ is set in 1819. It begins when Eugène de Rastignac, a young man in his early twenties from the Charente region, comes to Paris to study and stays at a shabby boarding house run by Boccard, where he meets Father Goriot, his next-door neighbor.
At that time, France was in the period following the Restoration, with King Louis XVIII on the throne. A closed-off atmosphere had formed as the old aristocracy sought to regain power, and there was a movement to erase the traces of the Napoleonic and Revolutionary eras and return to the Ancien Régime.
Amidst this, Paris was teeming with countless dazzling temptations. The salons of the mansions in the Saint-Germain district on the left bank of the Seine were spaces dominated by refined taste, and the high-class theaters—especially the Italian theaters—drew crowds with the vitality of Rossini’s operas. Meanwhile, in the Chaussée d’Antin district on the right bank, the financial bourgeoisie was accumulating capital and expanding its influence.
In the midst of this era brimming with desire and ambition, Eugène de Rastignac epitomizes the young man eager to join the social mainstream or leap to a higher status.

The Revolution of 1830 and a Turning Point in Novel Writing

In relation to the time Balzac was writing this novel, the July Revolution of 1830 brought about a major turning point in the political, cultural, and intellectual history of the first half of the 19th century. The closed society of the Restoration era seemed to suddenly open up, and at first glance, it appeared that a new era had dawned; however, in reality, political and financial interests soon gained the upper hand.
In October 1830, Balzac wrote, “As the roads were repaved, the July Revolution was buried beneath them.” With Louis-Philippe’s accession to the throne, the House of Orléans took the reins of power in place of the Bourbon dynasty, and the return to the old order within bourgeois society resulted in a thwarted leap forward. This disillusionment led people to abandon their dreams of changing everything.
First serialized in the ‘Revue de Paris’ beginning in December 1834 and published as a standalone volume in 1835, ‘Father Goriot’ is regarded as a sort of grand “crossroads” within Balzac’s vast body of work. This is because various paths converge in this novel and lead on to his other works.
While writing the novel, Balzac took great pride in his work; by systematizing the technique of character reappearance in this novel, he firmly established the direction of his future creative endeavors. Rastignac had already appeared in his earlier work ‘The Shark’s Skin’, and major characters such as Vautrin, Madame Nüssingen, Madame Boissier, and Dr. Bianchon reappear in subsequent works. Thus, ‘Father Goriot’ serves as a gateway into Balzac’s world.

The Structure of ‘The Human Comedy’ and Balzac’s Perspective

Balzac began conceiving the overall structure of his magnum opus, ‘The Human Comedy’, around 1834. If Dante’s ‘Divine Comedy’ is a “divine comedy and tragedy” that depicts the conditions of human life from God’s perspective, Balzac’s ‘The Human Comedy’ is so titled with the intention of depicting the comedies and tragedies that unfold in human society.
The works that comprise ‘The Human Comedy’ are broadly divided into three categories. The first is the “Studies in Manners,” a section dealing with scenes from private life, provincial life, Parisian life, political life, military life, and rural life; the second is the “Philosophical Studies,” comprising novels that probe the causes of things; and the third is the “Analytical Studies,” consisting of novels that delve into the principles of life. “Father Goriot” belongs to the “Studies in Manners” category, specifically the “Scenes from Private Life.”
From a political and ideological standpoint, Balzac clearly articulated his opposition to the superficiality of the bourgeois monarchy around 1832. He believed that strong authority and religion could bring about social unity, and in his 1833 work, he pointed out the reality that “self-interest,” rather than faith, was dividing people. When he published the complete collection of ‘The Human Comedy’ in 1842, he also stated that he wrote drawing on the two eternal truths of religion and the monarchy.
The tone of disillusionment that begins in “Father Goriot” later evolves into the harsh recognition of reality found in ‘Lost Illusions’, yet Balzac’s disillusionment does not lead to a sense of powerlessness. Rather, he cultivates a sharp, critical eye with which to scrutinize society, infusing his novels with the energy to conquer it. The character who embodies that energy is none other than Eugène de Rastignac.

Characters, Plot, and Themes

Rastignac, a young man from the countryside, yearns to be accepted into Parisian high society but lacks both wealth and resourcefulness. While gradually gaining entry into high society through his distant relative, the Countess de Beauséant, he becomes interested in Old Goriot, who lives in the room next to his at the Boquet boardinghouse, and gradually uncovers the old man’s secrets.
Old Goriot is an elderly man who squandered his entire fortune on his two daughters, was subsequently abandoned, and now lives alone and in loneliness in a cheap boardinghouse. His past and present are revealed primarily through Rastignac’s observations and the gossip of the boardinghouse residents.
The boardinghouse is home to Vautrin, a swashbuckling figure who pretends to be an escaped convict. Sensing Rastignac’s ambition, he proposes a devious deal and is well-versed in the collusion and intrigue necessary in a society ruled by profit and money.
Characters who transcend self-interest are extremely rare in the novel. One such figure is Old Goriot, a symbol of paternal love who devotes everything to his son without regard for himself, only to be abandoned; another is Madame de Beauséant, who, betrayed by high society and her lover, retreats into seclusion and spiritually transcends her pain.
In every room of the Boquet boardinghouse, passion and ambition boil like water in a pot. Among the prominent figures in Paris whom Rastignac approaches, the two daughters of Old Goriot stand out in particular.
Although Rastignac is rejected by the eldest daughter, he forms a relationship with the younger one, Delphine de Nuisingen. Ironically, Old Goriot’s active assistance plays a major role in the development of the secret affair between Delphine and Eugène.
However, the daughters, who had frequently visited their father and received his help, ultimately do not stay by the bedside of the elderly man as he lies dying. Eugène remains the only person to watch over Goriot’s deathbed and arrange his funeral.
Later, the young Rastignac, preparing for a head-on confrontation with Paris, heads to Delphine de Nuisingen’s home to meet her. In this way, the novel powerfully reveals Balzac’s world through a cross-section of Parisian society, where ambition, betrayal, sacrifice, and disillusionment are intertwined.

Contrast of Themes and Spaces

Thematically, ‘Father Goriot’ serves a function similar to “The Crossroads” in ‘The Human Comedy’. Themes that permeate Balzac’s fictional universe—such as the will to power, society, money, the pursuit of social advancement, and single-minded passion (obsession)—are all condensed within this work. From the very beginning of the novel, two social spaces are set in contrast: one is the dining room of the Boquet boarding house, a space for the common people, and the other is the salon of Madame de Beauséant, a hub of high society. The reader quickly realizes that these two spaces represent, respectively, the “place where the protagonist currently belongs” and the “place where he aspires to belong.”
However, it is significant that the protagonist, in his transition from the former to the latter, ultimately learns the same lesson in both spaces. There is no fundamental difference between the attitude of Madame Boke—who, having once coveted Goriot’s fortune and dreamed of becoming his partner, now mercilessly scorns him once he is left penniless—and that of an aristocrat like the Marquis de Dazuda, who marries the daughter of a prominent family solely for her dowry.
The cruelty of the socialites who flock to a ball to gawk at the tears of the noblewoman betrayed by the Marquis de Dazuda is no different from the ruthlessness of the boarders who despise Goriot and remain utterly unmoved by his death. The flattery that the young Rastignac pours out at Madame de Beauséant’s house to win the ladies’ favor, or the foolish jokes exchanged by the boarders gathered around the table at the Boquet boardinghouse, are merely different forms of stupidity. A character like Poiret exemplifies the pinnacle of petty-bourgeois stupidity, even evoking Flaubert’s works.

Society, Power, and Balzac’s Message

Whether the character is one cloaked in elegance or a criminal disguised as a commoner like Vautrin, the message ultimately conveyed to Rastignac is the same. The argument is that society is mercilessly vicious, and the only way to respond is to “conquer” it. Thus, at the end of the novel, the declaration, “Well then, it’s just Paris and me—a duel between the two of us!” serves as the final conclusion.
However, Balzac’s characters are neither revolutionaries seeking to destroy a society they find unsatisfactory nor recluses hiding from it. Bortin and many other characters, while hating society and exposing its contradictions, ultimately seek to exploit that very society for their own gain. In other words, the driving force behind the entire ‘Human Comedy’ is the “will to power,” which is closely linked to the bourgeoisie’s—the social class to which Balzac belonged—aspiration for social advancement.
It is said that in the early days of Louis-Philippe’s July Monarchy following the July Revolution of 1834, money ruled everything, and the sole goal in life was the accumulation of wealth. Balzac himself, filled with ambition for success and social advancement, wrote this novel while struggling under a massive debt. For him, “writing” can be seen as the last resort to gain both money and fame.
Just as Balzac’s primary motivation for writing was to pay off his debts, the driving force behind his character Rastignac’s actions is clearly social advancement. Although this young man desires women, he does not do so out of love but solely as a means to climb the social ladder. The reader is captivated as they watch a naive boy gradually transform into a fierce lion and a timid student evolve into a sophisticated man.
Imagine a young man, thirsty for the world, opening the doors of two mansions at once—kneeling at the home of the Countess de Resto while simultaneously setting foot in the home of the Viscountess de Beauséant. His ambitious attitude—believing he can gain help and protection through the favor of the women living in the various Parisian salons he surveys at a glance—is depicted as an image of a tightrope walker finding perfect balance and the ultimate support from a charming woman. The sight of a young man, mired in poverty and wrestling with legal texts, envisioning his ideal woman and planning a future brimming with success reveals the source of the driving force that flows throughout the work.

The Correlation Between Money and Reckless Passion

Another important theme in this novel is the relationship between money and reckless passion. ‘Father Goriot’ is not only a coming-of-age novel about Rastignac but also a social novel that scathingly exposes the glamour, vices, and materialism of Paris—a symbol of modern society—through Goriot’s downfall.
In the novel, money is presented from the very beginning in concrete and precise figures. Goriot’s boarding fees and pension, as well as the monthly remittances Rastignac receives from his hometown, are sometimes revealed so overtly that they can feel tedious to the reader. Nearly every event in the novel unfolds in connection with money—whether it involves pension issues, debt, promissory notes, or pawning possessions to raise funds.
Goriot is portrayed not as a miser but rather as a father who spends money like water on his daughters; this aspect defines his obsession not as a fixation on money but as an excessive affection for his children. However, since only money can secure his daughters’ attention and love, once his entire fortune has been depleted for this purpose, all that remains for him is a miserable end.
In Rastignac’s case, his immediate goal is not money itself but gaining entry into high society; however, money is essential for achieving that goal. Thus, for both Rastignac and Goriot, “money” is a driving force more powerful than passion, and the novel starkly illustrates that the age of capitalism has fully taken hold.

The Catastrophe of Obsession and Balzac’s Perspective

Many of Balzac’s characters meet their downfall due to excessive obsession. Just as Goriot is ruined by his excessive obsession with and devotion to his daughters, characters in other works also face tragedy because of their obsession with money or women. Whether it is pure paternal love or an unhealthy obsession, excessive immersion consumes a person and ultimately leads to ruin—a common theme that emerges.
Generally, the protagonists in Balzac’s novels destructively exhaust their life energy under the pressure of material deprivation and the ambition for social advancement. A key characteristic they share is that they are both the embodiment of desire and, at the same time, its victims. Old Goriot is a prime example of this.
In particular, examining the structure of novels published after the 1830s reveals a pattern where the preparation and development phases extend at length, only for the heightened tension—much like in a classical tragedy—to explode suddenly, leading to a catastrophic conclusion. ‘Father Goriot’ is no exception; Balzac does not defend Goriot—who is driven to misery and death by his blind and absolute paternal love—but rather condemns him.
The author does not view even paternal love—which might seem sacred at first glance—in a positive light. This is because that paternal love, unable to control itself, transformed into a passion that transcended common sense. This perspective aligns with the author’s criticism in other works of blind obsession with money, affection, and luxury.
Balzac adopts a realistic perspective that views love as a driving force for worldly success rather than as a romantic concept of fate or destructive love. In this regard, he can be regarded as the writer who took the first steps toward realism at a time when capitalism was just beginning.

The Multilayered Meaning of Old Goriot and the Author’s Self-Awareness

In depicting the life of the pitiful father Goriot—who was even called the “Christ of paternal love”—Balzac seems to have taken pride in his role as the “father” of the work. In a letter sent to his sister in 1834, he wrote, “I am a father. This is the secret I wanted to tell you.” While rejoicing in his role as the “father” of the characters he created, he simultaneously shaped the myth of tragic fatherhood with his pen.
Although this passage has an autobiographical resonance on the surface, the character embodied by Old Goriot reveals multiple, profound layers of meaning. He is a figure who exemplifies the social reality of the early 19th-century bourgeoisie—who amassed wealth during the Great Revolution—while also serving as a model of distorted family ethics, where excessive love for one’s children actually leads them astray.
Furthermore, he embodies the mythical image of the “eternal father” (the absolute father). However, as discussed earlier, Balzac does not truly endorse this mythical image. Although the author may sympathize with certain aspects of this image of fatherhood, he does not condone uncontrolled, blind love.
Among the various elements depicted in the novel, parallels with Balzac’s real life are evident throughout. For example, the names of Rastignac’s younger brothers in the novel are identical to those of Balzac’s actual younger brothers (Lor and Henri), and Balzac himself endured difficult times similar to those spent by Rastignac in his shabby attic during the early days when he first decided to become a writer. He also entered high society and competed with flashy, materialistic young men, and his passion and interest in women align in both the novel and reality.
Balzac, who had not received sufficient love from his mother during his childhood and adolescence, called Madame de Verny—who was 22 years his senior—by the nickname “Diletta” in his twenties and showered her with deep affection. After her death, he shared a long-lasting romance with Madame Hanska, an “exotic woman” who wrote to him from Ukraine; after many twists and turns, they married in 1850, but she died soon afterward. It can be said that these personal experiences served as the basis for ‘Father Goriot’, enriching the work’s universality.
It is said that Botrin, the most enigmatic and thought-provoking character, was modeled after Vidocq, a real-life figure who was both an escaped convict and a former police chief. Symbolizing a wild, untamable, and violent force, this character is often embodied in the work, particularly through his “voice.” He hums refrains from comic operas, exudes a strange, unsettling atmosphere during clandestine deals, and demonstrates Balzac’s unique ability to recreate the fantastical within everyday life.
Meanwhile, characters like the kind-hearted doctor Bianchon reflect the state of medical science at the time. Through this character, readers can also gain insight into contemporary scientific knowledge, such as Dr. Gall’s phrenology. It is said that Balzac became so deeply immersed in this character that he would unconsciously call out “Bianshon” when he himself was ill.
Through the characters in ‘The Human Comedy’, Balzac sought to portray archetypes of people living in the society of his time. To this end, he meticulously described the environments surrounding the characters in his novels, aiming to reveal their characteristics within those settings. Consequently, he often describes even furniture, wallpaper, and clothing in great detail. In particular, the way the narrative begins with a description of the neighborhood where the boarding house is located, shifts to a detailed description of the boarding house itself, and then focuses on Madame Boquet’s skirt is famous. Above all, the way Madame Boquet’s skirt serves to encapsulate the entire boarding house is noteworthy. Furthermore, he frequently provides detailed descriptions of characters’ occupations to reveal their personalities.
As the novel unfolds, Eugène de Rastignac faces crucial choices through various encounters and, through this process, gradually shapes his character. In this respect, ‘Father Goriot’ exhibits the characteristics of a Bildungsroman or coming-of-age novel. In 19th-century Bildungsromans, the “dynamics of social ascent”—how to rise in a bourgeois society where the glory of aristocratic lineage has faded—underpins the protagonist’s journey. Through various situations and encounters, the protagonist learns lessons and follows role models, establishing his own character without being swept away by negative influences around him. Thus, the protagonist’s geographical journey is linked to his inner journey, ultimately leading to his final liberation.
In this novel, Paris functions not merely as a backdrop but as a kind of “actor.” The story unfolds around two central poles: the aristocratic society—ostentatiously glamorous yet riddled with corruption and vice—and the petty-bourgeois society—greedy, chaotic, yet dynamic—represented by the Boquet boardinghouse. The former is divided into the Saint-Germain district, dominated by the “status” of the Ancien Régime, and the Chaussée d’Antin district, ruled by the “money” of the emerging financial elite. Rastignac moves between both worlds and, after burying Old Goriot—who was ultimately rejected by both—looks down upon Paris.
Left alone, Rastignac climbs the high hill of the cemetery and gazes at Paris, which winds along both banks of the Seine as the streetlights begin to come on. His gaze lingers obsessively on the area between the columns of the Place Vendôme and the domed roof of the Invalides—the very district where the members of high society he so desperately wanted to penetrate lived. Toward that place, which buzzed like a beehive, he cries out: “Well then, now it’s a showdown between Paris and me—just the two of us!”
All the figures who had a positive influence on Eugène or served as his mentors ultimately fall into ruin. Old Goriot squanders his fortune out of paternal love and dies a miserable, sickly death, while the pure yet discerning Madame de Beauséant, who introduced Eugène to high society, is betrayed in love and retreats to a convent in the provinces. Botrin, Eugène’s guide to life at the boarding house, is arrested when his true identity as an escaped convict is revealed. All that remains is the lonely protagonist, standing at the crossroads between conquest and failure in his showdown with “Paris.” The novel concludes with this confrontation, opening a new chapter in the “Human Comedy.” Rastignac ultimately succeeds in this showdown and goes on to achieve great success in subsequent works.
Among the reviews of this work, some point to Balzac’s exaggeration and unfiltered emotional expression as flaws. When the novel was first published, one critic argued that Balzac’s greatest flaw was exaggeration, noting that while the traits the author portrays are initially pure and genuine, they later become so overly exaggerated that the characters end up looking distorted. Consequently, the critic viewed the early sections as intriguing but felt the narrative took a sharp downturn as dramatic events unfolded.
On the other hand, many critics highly regard the overall significance and value of ‘Father Goriot’. Baudelaire, in particular, described Balzac as a passionate and visionary observer, noting that all of his characters possessed a passion burning with vitality, and that this passion, in turn, invigorated the author himself. Baudelaire emphasized that Balzac’s characters each possessed their own genius, and that even a humble doorman was a soul filled to the core with willpower.
Balzac himself revealed his conception for the novel in a letter to Madame Hanska in 1834. He wrote that he intended to depict “a kind father living in a bourgeois boarding house on a pension of 600 francs, who sacrifices everything for his daughters, who receive a pension of 50,000 francs, and dies like a dog.” Thereafter, he worked excessively to write various works for ‘The Human Comedy’, staying up all night writing while drinking excessive amounts of coffee.
According to accounts, his daily routine began at midnight with more than ten hours of writing without seeing anyone; he spent the morning dealing with demands from publishers and creditors and correcting the flood of proofs. This was followed by meals, manuscript work, and proofreading, with his work finally stopping at 5:00 p.m. After dining out, visiting friends, or taking a short nap, he would resume work at midnight. Like the characters in his novels, the author himself gradually wore himself out through the grueling process of completing his monumental works.
Balzac once confessed about the work: “‘Father Goriot’ is a beautiful work, but it is also a monstrously sad one. To achieve perfection, I had to reveal the spiritual sewers of Paris, and that is why it evokes an effect like a repulsive wound.” It is up to the reader to experience once again the masterful prose that filled the first half of the 19th century while reading his works, born of this physical and mental struggle.